lamnatsa
This idea grew from combining Semitic language style three-consonant word stems with strict and detailed semantic afixes like Ithkuil has. I was aiming for a language that makes meanings and connections explicit, to remove ambiguity. I ended up taking a lot of inspiration from Ithkuil, but nothing like the mass of its scope or complexity.
Contents
Phonology
I favored ease of pronunciation over brevity (because I like being able to pronounce my own conlangs), so I selected a simple set of phonemes. Without a large consonant inventory, the number of possible roots with three consonants seemed potentially limiting, though. So in the end I decided that each root would be made up of four consonants. If I decide that it is still too limiting, I'll add more consonants.
| Manner | Labial | Alveolar | Post-alveolar | Velar |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | ||
| Plosive | p b | t d | k g | |
| Fricative | f | s | ʃ | |
| Approximant | l |
(The 'ʃ' can be romanized with 'sh' as in English.)
| Height | Front | Central | Back |
|---|---|---|---|
| High | i | u | |
| Mid | o | ||
| Low | a |
The arrangement of consonants and vowels in words is very mechanical, so to avoid consonant clusters that would be hard to pronounce I worked with a rule that there should just never be two consecutive consonants without a vowel on both sides. That way consonantal roots can arbitrary and not have to worry about sonority principals. I also don't allow two of the same consonant next to each other in a root.
Word Formation
Verbs, nouns, and descriptors are based on four-consonant roots. Surrounding those roots are five affix slots, known at Slot-1 through Slot-5. Not all parts of speech use all slots. In fact, the patterns of what slots are used distinguishes verbs, nouns, and descriptors from each other.
Verbs have a cvCvCCvC(v) form. Nouns have a cvCCvCCv(c) form. Descriptors have a cvCCvCvCv(c) form. Capital "C" indicates the root consonants. The meanings of the affixes depend on the part of speech and will be explained below.
Verbs
Verbs have a cvCvCCvC(v) form. Verbs never fill Slot-3. They are the core of a clause (or sentence) and indicate the action or meaning being conveyed. There is at most one verb in every clause (unless using a conjunction). A complete sentence is a clause, but may also have subordinate clauses within it. Verbs are marked for how the action extends over time, the speaker's attitude toward the statement, and how those involved participate.
Mood
Mood indicates the speaker's attitude toward the statement, their aim, or their certainty about it, and is indicated with a CV prefix in Slot-1.
There are 8 incidative moods, which indicate different evidentialities attached to the statement.
Observational (OBS) pa- Indicates a statement of fact that the speaker is currenlty observing.
pakonfat panmudsu
(OBS-dance<PRG> AGT-act<NVL>-DEF)
"I see the actor is dancing."
Recollective (RCO) ta- Indicates a statement of fact that the speaker has previously observed.
tamadbaʃ papsadnu
(RCO-run<PFV> AGT-engine-DEF)
"I heard the engine run."
Inferential (IFR) ka- Indicates a statement of fact that the speaker is inferring from other information at their disposal.
kaladmak pasfadfu
(IFR-jump<PFV> AGT-horse-DEF)
"It makes sense that the horse jumped."
Authoritative (AUT) ma- Indicates a statement that the speaker has heard from a verifiable or expert source to be true.
mapuskib paʃlatkas munbaʃmat
(AUT-grow<PRM> AGT-leaf-IDF-MAX LOC-tree-IDF-NSP)
"Experts say leaves grow on trees."
Reportative (RPT) na- Idicates a statement that the speaker has heard was true from some third party, without indicating the quality of that source.
napadsad panmudsa
(RPT-visit<PFV> AGT-actor<NVL>-IDF)
"I heard that an actor is here visiting."
Conventional (CNV) la- Indicates a statement that is generally understood to be true.
lakanfat paʃlutnas
(CNV-dance<PFV> AGT-flower<NVL-IDF-MAX)
"Everyone knows florists dance."
Assumptive (ASM) fa- Indicates a statement that the speaker is assuming to be true.
fafapfat pafgunlu namlakta
(ASM-procure<PFV> AGT-drive<NVL>-DEF PAT-gas-IDF)
"I take it the driver got gas."
Intuitive (ITU) sa- Idicates a statement of fact that seems or feels right to the speaker. The speaker believes it is true, but lacks proof or is unsure.
saʃakdat pagfadkaf
(ITU-exercise<PFV> AGT-athlete-IDF-MAJ)
"It seems like athletes must exercize."sakantak pagtukpu
(ITU-leave<PFV> AGT-program<NVL>-DEF)
"I think the programmer left."
There are 10 other moods that mark a sentence not as a statement of fact, but imply an attitude about it, or the speaker's aim in making it.
Interrogative (INT) pu- Indicates the speaker is questioning whether the statement is true.
pufapfat pafgunlu namlakta
(INT-procure<PFV> AGT-drive<NVL>-DEF PAT-gas-IDF)
"Did the driver get gas?"
Optative (OPT) mu- Indicates the speaker's wishes regarding the statement. Without modification, it is intended to mark that the speaker wishes or hopes it to be true. To indicate a different opinion follow the verb with a LUFU- modifier to indicate how well the speaker wished it to be true.
musadlaf naʃsampa pagdampus
(OPT-eat<PFV> PAT-cookie-IDF AGT-1-DEF-MAX
"May you all eat cookies!"mugabnad ginuf padnalgu
(OPT-arrive<PFV> GINU/7 AGT-grandparent-DEF)
"I hope grandma arrives soon."mukantak panʃakmu
(OPT-leave<PFV> AGT-clown-DEF)
"I want the clown to leave."
Imperative (IMP) nu- Indicates that the speaker is commanding or requesting that the action be taken.
nukanfat pagdamtu
(IMP-dance<PFV> AGT-2-DEF)
"Dance!"
Possible (PSB) fu- Indicates the statement could be true, but it's truth is unknown.
fufapfap patlamba nagdamku
(PSB-take<PFV> AGT-thief-IDF PAT-3-DEF)
"Maybe a thief took it."fusaklam pagdampu
(PSB-walk<PFV> AGT-1-DEF)
"Maybe I'll go for a walk."
Probable (PRB) su- Indicates the speaker blieves the statement is likely to be true.
sufapfat panlungu naʃtapkum
(PRB-procure<PFV> AGT-garden<NVL>-DEF PAT-seed-def-MTP)
"The gardener probably got the seeds."
Permissive (PMS) bu- Indicates that the action is allowed.
bukadnas pasnukgu
(PMS-perform<PFV> AGT-music<NVL>-DEF)
"The musician can perform."bufasnag pagdamtu
(PMS-remain<PFV> AGT-2-DEF)
"you may stay."
Exhortative (EXH) du- Indicates that the speaker encourages the action to take place.
dukanfat pagtukpas
(EXH-dance<PFV> AGT-program<NVL>-IDF-MAX)
"Programmers should dance."
Necessitative (NEC) gu- Indicates that the action is required.
gubupmat pagfadkas namtapta
(NEC-wear<HAB>-athlete-IDF-MAX PAT-uniform-IDF)
"All athletes must wear a uniform."
Conjectural (CJL) pi- On its own, indicates that the statement is hypothetical. If paired with the conditional, it forms an if-then statement, with the conjectural part being the "if" part.
pikudnas panʃakmaf nadnalbam
(CJL-perform<HAB> AGT-clown-IDF-MAJ PAT-child-IDF-MTP)
"Clowns perform for children, in theory."
Conditional (CON) ti- Indicates that the validity of the statment is dependent on some other condition. If paired with the conjectural, it forms an if-then statement, with the conditional part being the "then" part.
tisaʃsaf pagdampu lakdinsu
(CON-watch<PFV> AGT-1-DEF THM-perform<OCC>-DEF)
"I would watch the performance."tipadsad pagdamtu nadnaldu kogdamatu
(CON-visit<PFV> AGT-2-DEF PAT-parent-def ITI-2-def)
"You could visit your mother."
Aspect
Aspect indicates how the action of the verb extends over time, and is indicated with vowels in Slot-2 and Slot-4. Those two vowels taken together indicate the aspect.
Perfective (PFV) -a-a- Indicates the action as a simple whole.
pakadnas paknuftu
(OBS-to.perform<PFV> AGT-perform<NVL>-DEF)
"The dancer performs."
Perfect (PRF) -a-u- Indicates the completion of the action and its consequences.
mafadbud patʃuktu ladnaglu mogdamaku
(AUT-to.publish<PRF> AGT-learn<NVL>-DEF THM-document-DEF ORI-3-DEF)
"The student has published her thesis."
Prospective (PSV) -a-i- Indicates the action has not yet happened.
nakafsin pafgukʃu
(RPT-sing<PSV> AGT-art<NVL>-DEF)
"The artist is going to sing."mafatdif paCarol
(AUT-speak<PSV> AGT-Carol)
"Carol is about to speak."
Progressive (PRG) -o-a- Indicates the action is ongoing, without regard to its duration.
pamodbaʃ pagfadku
(OBS-run<PRG> AGT-athlete-DEF)
"The athlete is running."
Temporary (TMP) -o-u- Indicates the action is ongoing, but relatively brief.
nanoknug pakgatmu nafdaknu pogdabaku
(RPT-fill<TMP> AGT-lawyer-DEF PAT-drink-DEF POS-3-DEF)
"The laywer is filling his drink."
Protractive (PTR) -o-i- Indicates the action is ongoing, and of relatively long duration.
takonfit panʃakmu
(RCO-dance<PRT> AGT-clown-DEF)
"The clown danced and danced."
Habitual (HAB) -u-a- Indicates the action is something done regularly.
tamudbaʃ patʃuktu
(RCO-run<HAB> AGT-learn<NVL>-DEF)
"The student runs (every day)."
Permanent (PRM) -u-i- Indicates the action has and always will happen in the given context.
lapuskib paʃlatkas munbaʃmat
(CNV-grow<PRM> AGT-leaf-IDF-MAX LOC-tree-IDF-NSP)
"Leaves grow on trees."
Inceptive (ICP) -i-a- Indicates the beginning/starting of the action.
tamidbaʃ patʃukpu
(RCO-run<ICP> AGT-teach<NVL>-DEF)
"The teacher took off running."
Accelerative (ACL) -i-o- Indicates the action is speeding up or growing stronger.
natiʃkot palkapnu
(RPT-learn<ACL> AGT-doctor-DEF)
"The doctor learned more and more."
Tardative (TRD) -i-u- Indicates the action is slowing, fading, or becoming less potent.
tatidsuʃ papsadnu koʃpatadu togdamapu fubit
(RCO-operate<TRD> AGT-engine-DEF ITI-car-DEF PPR-1-DEF FUBI/2)
"My car's engine is running worse and worse."
Cessative (CES) -i-i- Indicates the end of the action happening.
nasiʃsif pandunbu lafgatdi
(RPT-watch<CES> AGT-write<NVL>-DEF THM-television-ATR)
"The writer stopped watching TV."
Participation
When multiple participants are involved in an act, you can indicate a few different manners in which they participate. This usually applies to the semantic role of agent (see below), but can also apply to experiencer and potentially cause. Participation is indicated in Slot-5 with a vowel, if marked.
Monoactive (MNO)/Parallel (PAR): Indicates either that we are not considering the participant to be a multiple (either it is singular or we are treating a group as a single whole), or that all participants are performing the same act in parallel. This is the default participation value and is unmarked.
Complementary (CPL) -a Indicates that the participants do different parts, cooperatively, to complete the action.
tanasputa pagdampul nadbasfu
(RCO-construct<PRF>-CPL AGT-1-DEF-NMR PAT-bridge-DEF)
"We (cooperatively) constructed the bridge."
Participative (PTC) -u Indicates that the participants are part of a larger group that is performing the action.
pamoʃpanu pafʃadʃum nalgaldu
(OBS-attend<PRG>-PTC AGT-friend-DEF-MTP PAT-game-DEF)
"The friends attend the game (along with others)."
Reciprocal (RCP) -i Indicates that the participants are doing the action to each other. Often they are fulfilling the semantic role of both agent and patient (see below), and they can be marked as either (depending on what the speaker wishes to emphasize).
nasoʃsifi panʃakmum
(RPT-see<PTR>-RCP AGT-clown-DEF-MTP)
"The clowns stare at each other."
Tense
It is not always necessary to express tense. Sentences like, "Trees have leaves." are usually framed in the present tense, but are meant to apply equally to the past and the future. In English, stories are conventionally told in the past tense, but they don't fundamentally need to be. Because of this tense is not marked on the verb unless it is necessary to the meaning of the sentence. If you need to express tense, follow the verb with a GINU- modifier, to indicate the temporal position of the action.
Nouns
Nouns have a cvCCvCCv(c) form. Nouns never fill Slot-2 or Slot 4. Nouns are fundamentally used to modify the verb of a clause, indicating its participants and the location, time, and manner in which it happened. They are marked for the role they play in the clause, the number being referred to, and what instances or form are indicated.
Semantic Role
The semantic role of a noun is the role it plays in the action specified by the verb. It is different from cases like "subject" and "object", which have more to do with the placement of the noun in the structure of the sentence than the role it plays in the action. They can each be though of as directing, modifying, or describing the action of the verb in some way. Every noun is marked for one of these and it is indicated with a CV prefix in Slot-1.
There are 9 participatory semantic roles that mark nouns directly involved in the action of the verb.
Agent (AGT) pa- Indicates the entity is willfully performing the action of the verb. A mindless entity (like a force of nature) is considered an agent if its natural beavior is causing the action.
takaʃlap pagfadku napgatbu
(RCO-throw<PFV> AGT-athlete-DEF PAT-ball-DEF)
"The athlete threw the ball."mapakʃub gukif pamʃalfa nagʃadpu
(AUT-damage<PRF> GUKI/7 AGT-tornado-IDF PAT-house-DEF)
"A tornado destroyed the house."
Stimulus (STM) ta- Indicates the entity prompts the action of the verb by its exitence or presence, not by a deliberate action.
tagalkat nagdampu taʃtalmut
(RCO-sneeze<PFV> PAT-1-DEF STM-flower-DEF-NSP)
"The flowers make me sneeze."
Experiencer (EXP) ma- Indicates the entity passively receives the action.
nasaʃsuf magfagʃu tapʃasnu
(RPT-see<PRF EXP-soldier-DEF STM-explosion-def)
"The soldier saw the explosion."fakopmug panʃakmu madnalbuf
(ASM-entertain<TMP> AGT-clown-DEF EXP-child-DEF-MAJ)
"The clown entertained the children."
Patient (PAT) na- Indicates the entity undergoes the action and changes its state in some way.
takaʃlap pagfadku napgatbu
(RCO-throw<PFV> AGT-athlete-DEF PAT-ball-DEF)
"The athlete threw the ball."
Theme (THM) la- Indicates the entity is the focus or topic of the action, but itself does not change state.
lakamful patʃuktu labsafʃa
(CNV-study-PRF AGT-learn<NVL>-DEF THM-math-IDF)
"The student studied math."nabotsam panmadsu ladnalbat
(RPT-want<PRG> AGT-act<NVL>-DEF THM-child-IDF-NSP)
"The actor wants children."
Beneficiary (BEN) fa- Indicates the entity for whose benefit the action takes place. In English this would be the indirect object of a ditransitive verb.
pafabʃan pagdampu fagdumtu
(OBS-translate<PFV> AGT-1-DEF BEN-2-DEF)
"I'll translate for you."
Recipient (RCI) sa- Indicates the entity to whom ownership or posession is passed. In English this would be the indirect object of a ditransitive verb.
nakaʃlap patʃukpu satʃuktu naʃdalsa
(RPT-throw<PFV> AGT-teach<NVL>-DEF RCI-learn<NVL>-DEF PAT-book-IDF)
"The teacher tossed the student a book."
Cause (CSE) ba- Indicates the entity is the original cause of the action. The action happens because of this entity.
nafadkan pakgatmu natsambu bamtanmu
(RPT-dring<PFV> AGT-lawyer-DEF PAT-water-DEF CSE-thirst-DEF)
"The lawyer drank the water because he was thirsty (because of [his] thirst)."
Purpose (PUR) ga- Indicates the entity is the reason for which the action is performed.
taʃukdat pagfadku gadpasta
(RCO-exercise<HAB> AGT-athlete-DEF PUR-strength-IDF)
"The athlete exercised to get more strength."
There are 11 descriptive semantic roles that mark nouns expressing the manner, locaiton, or time in which the action takes place.
Characteristic (CHA) pu- Indicates an entity that characterizes the manner in which the action takes place.
takanfat pagdamtu pugnabsi
(RCO-dance<PFV> AGT-3-DEF CHA-grace-ATR)
"She dances gracefully."talanʃak pagdamtu pugmanti
(RCO-swim<PFV> AGT-3-DEF CHA-fish-ATR)
"He swims like a fish."
Instrumental (INS) tu- Indicates the entity is used in order to implement the action (like a tool).
nalabʃab pagdamtu namfamdu tunʃagma
(RPT-repair<PFV> AGT-3-DEF PAT-door-DEF INS-hammer-IDF)
"She fixed the door with a hammer."
Distributive (DST) ku- Indicates an entity whose repetition is used to measure the action, either phsically or temporally.
lasaklam pagdamtu kugʃadpa
(CNV-walk<PFV> AGT-3-DEF DST-house-IDF)
"He walked house by house."nukistab naʃdalsum kultamʃu
(IMP-sort<ICP> PAT-book-DEF-MTP DST-name-DEF)
"Sort the books by name."paguptaʃ pagdampu kuʃgabta
(OBS-pay<HAB> AGT-1-DEF DST-month-IDF)
"I pay per month"
Locative (LOC) mu- Indicates an entity at or near which the action takes place.
mudbasfu
(LOC-bridge-DEF)
"on the bridge"
Ablative (ABL) nu- Indicates motion away from the entity.
tamadbaʃ pagdampum nufmalku
(RCO-run<PFV> AGT-1-DEF-MTP ABL-fire-DEF)
"We ran from the fire."
Allative (ALL) lu- Indicates motion to the entity.
talaklas pagdampum lumpalbu dinif pukpadana
(RCO-travel<PFV> AGT-1-DEF-MTP ALL-settlement-DEF DINI/7 CHA-emerald-IDF)
"We travelled to the emerald city."
Perlative (PER) fu- Indicates motion across, through, or along the entity.
fulbagsu
(PER-tunnel-DEF)
"through the tunnel"
Comitative (COM) su- Indicates the entity accompanies the action or paticipants in the sentence. It is not necessarily involved, just along with or together with something else.
nasaklam pakgatmu suʃpamgu
(RPT-walk<PFV> AGT-lawyer-DEF COM-case-DEF)
"The lawyer walked with his briefcase."
Temporal (TEM) bu- Indicates an entity specifying a time at which the action happens.
bufpamʃum
(TEM-holiday-DEF-MTP)
"during the holidays"
Precursive (PRC) du- Indicates the action takes place before the time specified by this entity.
dulkamʃu
(PRC-war-DEF)
"before the war"
Postcursive (POC) gu- Indicates the action takes place after the time specified by this entity.
gupmiʃsu
(POC-rain<OCC>-DEF)
"after the rain"
There are 8 procedural semantic roles that mark nouns expressing rules and process by which an action takes place.
Resultative (RES) pi- Idicates an entity that is the result or consequence of the action.
tamatmad pagdampu lasdalfa gukik pifgafsaf gukik
(RCO-find<PFV> AGT-1-DEF THM-foot-IDF GUKI/3 RES-portion-IDF-MTP GUKI/3)
"We found little food, resulting in small portions."
Commutative (CMU) ti- Indicates an entity received in exchange, usually as a result of the action of the sentence.
nagaptaʃ gukif paltudlu tifgatdu
(RPT-pay<PFV> GUKI/7 AGT-report<NVL>-DEF CMU-television-DEF)
"The reporter paid a lot for that TV"patukbas pagdampu nalgaldam tiʃlimʃa
(OBJ-play<HAB> AGT-1-DEF PAT-game-IDF-MTP CMU-enjoy<OCC>-IDF)
"I play games for fun."
Consumptive (CNS) ki- Indicates an entity used up by the action.
tanaspat pagdampu nadpadma kilkagpu
(RCO-make<PFV> AGT-1-DEF PAT-pizza-IDF CNS-pepperoni-DEF)
"I made a pizza with the pepperoni."
Conformative (CNF) mi- Indicates an entity, idea, or rule that the action is complying with.
magabnag pagfagʃum mibpabpu
(AUT-depart<PFV> AGT-soldier-DEF-MTP CNF-treaty-DEF)
"The soldiers left, pursuant to the treaty."nagaptaʃ padnaldu mipminfu
(RPT-pay<PFV> AGT-parent-DEF CNF-expect<OCC>-DEF)
"The parent paid, as expected."
Capitulative (CAP) ni- Indicates an entity which might be expected to resist or stop the action, but hasn't.
nabaldak panbunpu napsadnu nidpastu gukit
(AUT-lift<PFV> AGT-politics<NVL>-DEF PAT-engine-DEF CAP-strength-DEF GUKI/2)
"Despite his weakness, the politician lifted the engine."butakbis papbaʃsas niʃkatka
(PMS-play<PSV> AGT-person-IDF-MAX CAP-age-IDF)
"Everyone can play, regardless of age."
Aversive (AVR) li- Indicates an entity to be avoided or feared.
patalfag pagdampu bumsagtam liksamʃam
OBS-hike<PFV> AGT-1-DEF TEM-day-IDF-MTP AVR-bat-IDF-MTP)
"I hike during the day to avoid bats."
Convictive (CVT) fi- Indicates an entity that believes or asserts that the sentence is true.
dutalmab sabiʃ naʃpatda filnasba
(EXH-steal<PFV> SABI/9 PAT-car-IDF CVT-police-IDF)
"According to police, you shouldn't steal cars."
Deferential (DFR) si- Indicates an entity that the action is meant to show respect or deference to.
tamatban pagdampus publanbi simtadku
(RCO-wait<PFV> AGT-1-DEF-MAX CHR-calm-ATR DFR-veteran-DEF)
"For the sake of the veteran, we waited patiently."labadlaʃ pagdampuf bumsagpu sisdasti
(CNV-begin<PFV> AGR-1-DEF-MAJ TEM-morning-DEF DFR-tradition-ATR)
"We traditionally start in the morning."
Derivation
Derivation indicates which of the roots noun meanings to take. Basic (BAS) derivation indicates the main noun meaning given in the lexicon. The other derivations indicate that the noun is derived from the verbal meaning of its root. For instance "assignment" derived from "assign", or "glorifier" derived from "glory". It is indicated in Slot-3.
Basic (BAS) -a- Indicates the main simple noun meaning given in the lexicon.
lalnapga
(THM-dog<BAS>-IDF)
"a dog"
Involementive (NVL) -u- Indicates an entity that plays a role in the action. The role is assumed to be someone who does the action, agent (AGT), unless the noun is followed by a FIDU- modifer indicating a semantic role. Involvement added to "employ" would mean "employer", but with a "fidum" modifier after it, it would mean "employee". It is important to note that this is just defining a noun relative to the action. The resulting noun can still take any semantic role in a sentence.
lagtudmi
(THM-employ<NVL>-ATR)
"employer"lagtudmi fidum
(THM-employ<NVL>-ATR FIDU/4)
"employee"
Occurant (OCC) -i- Indicates an occurance of the action. In English this is usually formed by adding -tion, -ation, -ment, -ance, or by simply saing "a X".
lambimsa
(THM-erupt<OCC>-IDF)
"eruption"laskidfa
(THM-argue<OCC>-IDF)
"argument"
Gerundive (GER) -o- Indicates he abstract act of doing the action.
matuʃtab pamdobʃi natfafli fofsalati
(AUT-improve<HAB> AGT-run<GER>-ATR PAT-health-ATR CLS-heart-ATR)
"Running improves heart health."
Definiteness
A noun's definiteness specifies whether you are referring to a nonspecific instance of the noun, a specific instance referenced elsewhere, or the general concept of the noun. It is indicated in the vowel of the VC suffix in Slot-5.
Abstract (ATR) -i- Indicates the abstract concept of the entity. Often formed with "-ness" or "-hood" in English.
lanfikʃi
(THM-clean<OCC>-ATR)
"cleanliness"ladnalbi
(THM-child-ATR)
"childhood"
Indefinite (IDF) -a- Indicates a nonspecific instance of the entity.
lagʃadba
(THM-house-IDF)
"a house"lapbaʃsa
(THM-person-IDF)
"some guy"
Definite (DEF) *-u- Indicates an specific instance of the entity that was referenced elsewhere or clear from context.
lamʃatlu
(THM-chair-DEF)
"the chair"
Quantifiers
Quantifiers indicate which or how many instances of an entity are being referred to. It is indicated in the consonant of the VC suffix in Slot-5.
Monadic (MON) - Indicates the entity referred to as a single whole. It is the most common quantifier and is unmarked
laltidla
(THM-report<OCC>-IDF[-MON])
"a report"lanbaʃmu
(THM-tree-DEF[-MON])
"the tree"
Negative (NGT) -p Indicates none of the entities or a lack of any of the entities.
pamodbaʃ papbaʃsap
(OBS-run<PRG> AGT-person-IDF-NGT)
"No person is running."
Nonspecific (NSP) *-t Indicates one or more of the entities, an unspecified quantity.
lalnapgat
(THM-dog-IDF-NSP)
"any dogs"
Minimal (MIN) -k Incidates a relatively small number or amount of the entity.
lagfagʃuk
(THM-soldier-DEF-MIN)
"a few soldiers"lasgafmuk
(THM-soup-DEF-MIN)
"a little soup"
Multiple (MTP) -m Indicates an unspecified, but not singular, number of entities, or an amount of the entity more than its minimum amount.
lasgafmum
(THM-soup-IDF-MTP)
"some hammers"
Sufficient (SUF) -n Indicates a quantity of the entities sufficient to meet some related criteria (usually stated or implied elsewhere in the sentece or the surrounding context)
lanʃakman
(THM-clown-IDF-SUF)
"enough clowns"
Numerous (NMR) -l Indicates a relatively large number or amount of the entity.
laʃdalsal
(THM-book-IDF-NMR)
"many books"latsabmal
(THM-water-IDF-NMR)
"a lot of water"
Majority (MAJ) -f Indicates more than half of the entities.
lapkagmuf
(THM-farm-DEF-MAJ)
"most of the farms"
Maximal (MAX) -s Indicates all of the entities.
lasnakgus
(THM-music-DEF-MAX)
"all music"
Proper Nouns
Proper nouns pulled in from other languages are indicated by capitalizing the first letter of the word(s) (no other words are capitalized, even at the start of a sentence). A semantic role prefix is then applied. The semantic role is in lower case, so the word will begin with two lower case letters, then a capital. It should be fairly rare, but definiteness and quantifiers can sometimes make sense on a proper noun. In that case, add a hyphen and the appropriate suffix.
If a proper noun is more than one word, connect them with hyphens and capitalize each word. Only add the semantic role prefix at the beginning of the first word and the definiteness and quantifier suffix (if needed) after the last.
tapagduf pagdampu nampafbut kofbafamut luBattle-Creek
(RCO-send<PRF> AGT-1-DEF PAT-top-DEF-NSP ITI-box-DEF-NSP ALL-Battle.Creek)
"I sent the box-tops to Battle Creek."
Descriptors
Descriptors take the noun meaning of a root and use it to describe or define a noun or another descriptor. The noun or descriptor being modified preceeds it in a clause and is known as its head noun (even when it's modifying another descriptor). When multiple descriptors follow a noun, the second and further ones should be followed by a FUBI- modifier indicating which preceeding word they are modifying. Without one, they are assumed to be modifying the preceeding noun and not another descriptor. They are formed very similarly to nouns (having derivation, definiteness, and quantifier), except that their part of speech is indicated with an -a- in Slot-4, and instead of a semantic role, they indicate a descriptive case in the CV prefix in Slot-1. Descriptors have a cvCCvCvCv(c) form.
Descriptive Case
A descriptive case is indicated with a CV prefix in Slot-1 and it defines how the descriptor is modifying its head noun.
There are 9 relational descriptive cases that mark descriptors expressing relationships between the descriptor and its head noun.
Possessive (POS) po- Indicates the entity currently posesses the head noun, but is inherently seperable from it.
ladtasdu pogdamaku ʃikdinasu
(THM-ticket-DEF POS-3-DEF PRP-perform<OCC>-DEF)
"her tickets to the performance"
Proprietive (PPR) to- Indicates the head noun is inherently seperable from this entity, but that the ownership is permanent or long-term
laʃpatdu totʃukapu
(THM-car-DEF PPR-teach<NVL>-DEF)
"the teacher's car"
Intrinsic (ITI) ko- Indicates that the head noun is an inalienable part or characteristic of this entity
ladfatful kokgatamu
(THM-hair-DEF-NMR ITI-lawyer-DEF)
"the lawyer's hair"
Originative (ORI) mo- Indicates the entity is the creator or literal or figurative origin of its head noun. If the head noun is simply moving out of or from something, use ablative (ABL) instead.
lakfasnu mopbufamu
(THM-song-DEF ORI-compose<NVL>-DEF)
"the composer's song"
Interdependent (ITD) no- Indicates a coordinated, complimentary, or reciprocal relationship with the head noun. The relationship is not one of possesion or an attribute.
laʃpatdu nofgunalu
(THM-car-DEF ITD-drive<NVL>-DEF)
"the driver of the car"latʃuktu notʃukapu
THM-learn<NVL>-DEF ITD-teach<NVL>-DEF)
"the teacher's student"
Experiential (XPL) lo- Indicates the entity has an experiencer relationship with the head noun
lanʃindat lodnalabu
(THM-cough<OCC>-IDF-NSP XPL-child-DEF)
"the child's cough"ladnabtu lotʃukapu
(THM-mood-DEF XPL-teach<NVL>-DEF)
"the teacher's mood"
Classificative (CLS) fo- Indicates the entity specifies a specific type of the head noun.
latkubsa fombanama
(THM-play<NVL>-IDF CLS-baseball-IDF)
"baseball player"
Contential (CNT) so- The entity is defines the contents of the head noun.
lafbafma soflabapa
(THM-box-IDF CNT-cereal-IDF)
"a box of cereal"
Interpretive (ITP) ʃo- Identifies a perspective through which the head noun is perceived.
lamlaʃgu ʃofgukaʃu
(THM-world-DEF ITP-art<NVL>-DEF)
"the artist's world"lapgalta ʃodnalabam
(THM-summer-IDF ITP-child-IDF-MTP)
"summer as seen by children"
There are 8 physical descriptive cases that indicate the location or nature of the head noun.
Characteristic (CHA) pu- Indicates an entity that characterizes the head noun.
ladʃakga pufʃadaʃa
(THM-face-IDF CHA*-friend-IDF)
"a friendly* face"laʃmafbu pudkaʃaba
(THM-hallway-DEF CHA-maze-IDF)
"the maze-like hallways"
Compositive (CPO) tu- Indicates the head noun is made up of this entity.
laktagfum tumtapasa
(THM-shelf-DEF-MTP CPO-wood-IDF)
"the wooden shelves"
Locative (LOC) mu- Indicates an entity at or near which the head noun is located.
laʃpatdu mudbasafu
(THM-car-DEF LOC-bridge-DEF)
"the car on the bridge"
Ablative (ABL) nu- Indicates the head noun moves from or leads away from this entity.
lafpatpu nuDetroit
(THM-train-DEF ABL-Detroit)
"the train from Detroit"
Allative (ALL) lu- Indicates the head noun moves to or leads to this entity.
lamʃamdu lumpalabu dinif pukpadana fubit
(THM-road-DEF ALL-settlement-DEF DINI/7 CHA-emerald-IDF FUBI/2)
"the road to emerald city"
Perlative (PER) fu- Indicates the head noun covers or moves across, through, or along the entity.
lasmakba dinik fulfapada
(THM-hill-IDF DINI/3 PER-grass-IDF)
"a grass covered hill"lalbagsu fusmakabu dinif
(THM-tunnel-DEF PER-hill-DEF DINI/7)
"the tunnel through the mountain"
Comitative (COM) su- Indicates the entity accompanies the head noun. The focus is on the head noun and this entity is just in its presence or along with it.
lapbufmu sugbatasu
(THM-music<NVL>-DEF COM-trombone-DEF)
"the musician with the trombone"
Abessive (ABE) ʃu- Indicates the entity is missing from the head noun.
ladlamga ʃudfatafat
(THM-cat-IDF ABE-hair-IDF-NSP)
"a hairless cat"
There are 6 utilitarian descriptive cases that indicate how the head noun operates or relates to other things.
Conformative (CNF) mi- Indicates an entity, idea, or rule that the head noun complies with.
ladkamlu midlasadu
(THM-citizen-DEF CNF-law-DEF)
"the law-abiding citizen"
Aversive (AVR) li- Indicates an entity the head noun fears or avoids.
lanʃufku liʃdagama
(THM-archeology<NVL>-DEF AVR-snake-IDF)
"the snake-fearing archeologist"
Purposive (PRP) ʃi- Indicates this entity as the purpose for which the head noun is used.
lafbafma ʃimkatasa
(THM-box-IDF PRP-tool-IDF)
"a toolbox"lapfasga ʃitsamaba
(THM-glass-IDF PRP-water-IDF)
"a glass for water"
Contrastive (CTR) bi- Idicates an entity that is being replaced by its head noun.
lanʃagma biʃpakafa
(THM-hammer-IDF CTR-screwdriver-IDF)
"a hammer instead of a screwdriver"lapgalmu bipgalaku
(THM-winter-DEF CTR-fall-DEF)
"winter, as opposed to fall"
Exclusive (XCL) di- Indicates this entity is excluded from the group specified by its head noun.
pisadlaf pagdampu nasdalfat dipmasamat
(CJL-eat<HAB> AGT-1-DEF PAT-food-IDF-NSP XCL-vegetable-IDF-NSP)
"I'll eat any food but vegetables."
Referential (REF) gi- Indicates this entity is what the head noun is referring to.
lafpakta gipgalapu
(THM-poem-IDF REF-spring-DEF)
"a poem about spring"
Modifiers
Modifiers serve many purposes. They can act as adverbs and adjectives, modifying the verbs, nouns, and descriptors preceeding them. They can also add grammatical information. Each modifier has a specific purpose, not all modifiers can be used in all places.
Modifiers have a base meaning and a gradient specifying different degrees or types of that meaning. The meaning of each degree is explicitly defined along each modifier base. The base is expressed with a CVCV structure. A degree is selected with a C suffix on the end.
Sentence Structure
Clauses
Each clause can be thought of as a verb and a collection of nouns paricipating in it. Those pieces are ordered in descending order of emphasis. Usually the verb is first, since that is what the sentence is all about. In rare cases when a noun is of particularly stressed importance, it can preceed the verb. The nouns follow, with the first being what the speaker considers the most important.
For example, "The officer drove the car" could be ordered "drove officer car", which would emphasize that this was something the officer was doing, we're talking about the officer. If instead you wanted to emphasize that someone was finally driving the car it would be "drove car officer".
Modifiers immediately follow the verb, noun, or descriptor they are modifying. Mulitple modifiers all apply to the verb, noun, or descriptor that immediately preceeds them. They do not apply to each other.
Descriptors follow the noun they are modifying, but after any modifiers also being applied to that noun. When multiple descriptors follow a head noun, the second and further ones should be followed by a FUBI- modifier indicating which preceeding word they are modifying. Without one, they are assumed to be modifying the preceeding noun and not another descriptor. Note that a descriptor's reference must never jump across a descriptor referring to the noun. Imagine a noun followed by three descriptors. The first descriptor must refer to the noun. Imagine the second one is also marked to refer to the noun. The third one can be marked to refer to the second descriptor, or to the noun, but not to the first descriptor.
Subordinate Clauses
An adverbial clause (AVC) takes the place of a semantic role within another clause. It is intruduced with the stem -p with a semantic role prefix attached to it. That prefix indicates the role the thing described in the adverbial clause plays in the containing clause. The adverbial clause is located within its enclosing clause in the same manner as a noun carrying the same semantic role would, indicating its level of emphasis.
kasudlaf pagdamku nadpadna bup mulnagsu.
(IFR-eat<HAB> AGT-3-DEF PAT-pizza-IDF TEM-AVC LOC-restaurant-DEF)
"He ate pizza when he went to the restaurant."pamudbaʃ pagal sabiʃ pagdampu nip tabafkug pagdamtu.
(OBS-run<HAB> PAGA/6 NOT AGT-1-DEF CAP-AVC RCO-coach<PRF> AGT-2-DEF)
"I don't run fast, despite you coaching me."
A relative clause (REL) is a clause used to modify a noun or descriptor. The noun or descriptor being modified plays a role in the clause that describes it. A relative clause is introduced with the stem -t with a semantic role prefix attached to it. That prefix indicates the role that the noun or descriptor being modified plays within the relative clause. Relative clauses follow the noun or descriptor they are modifying, after any modifiers and descriptors.
lapbaʃsu pat natapsab nasfadfu,
(THM-person-DEF AGT-REL RPT-buy<PFV> PAT-horse-DEF)
"the man who bought the horse"lapgatbu nat tanafdan pagdampu,
(THM-ball-DEF PAT-REL RCO-kick<PFV> AGT-1-DEF)
"the ball that I kicked"lanʃakmu fat tafapfaka naflaspa pagdampum,
(THM-clown-DEF BEN-REL RCO-gather<PRF>-CPL PAT-money-IDF AGT-1-DEF-MTP)
"the clown we raised money for"
The end of a subordinate clause is indicated with a comma in writing, and with word emphasis and a pause in speech. Since is is possible to nest subordinate clauses within each other, it is possible to need two successive commas to indicate the ends of enclosed clauses. This is the correct way to unambiguously indicate the boundaries of each clause. You cannot "collapse" multiple boundary commas into one puncutation mark. A period, however, ends the sentence and thus all clauses within it.
Sentences
Most sentences simply contain a single clause.
Conditional sentences, having an if-then structure contain two clauses. One contains a conjectural verb and the other a conditional verb. They are separated by a comma. Either one can come first, depending on which half the speaker wishes to stress more.
Questions
Questions usually use the BDGK root to mark the part of the sentence that is being asked about. Use it with the agent semantic role to ask who or what did the action. Use it with the benficiary semantic role to ask who the action was done for. Use it as the verb to ask what was done.
When asking a yes/no question concerning the truth of a whole statement, there are two approaches. To question the truth of a simple indicative statement, you can use the interrogative mood (INT) on the verb. The response should indicate level of evidentiality along with the answer. If you want to question the truth of a non-inidicative statement (asking "may I?" of the permissive mood, or "do you wish for?" with the optative mood), simply put a question mark at the end or use a rising tone in speech. If the level of evidentiality is being questioned along with an indicative statement ("is it true people say X?") then the evidentiality can be indicated by the mood and a question mark is used at the end.
Conjunctions
If you include more than one of something, the basic assumption is that they are joined in an "and" relation. So you could have two agents in a sentence to mean "Joe and Fred played ball". Or you could have two comitative descriptors on a noun to say "the man with the hat and tie". If you use two verbs (with their modifiers) right next to each other, they share their semantic roles. If you separate them, they can have their own.
tabakbut tasaʃsuf pagdampu lalgaldu
(RCO-record<PRF> RCO-watch<PRF> AGT-1-DEF THM-game-DEF)
"I recorded and watched the game."tamaʃpunu paJoe lalgaldu tasaʃsuf pagdampu lalgaldu
(RCO-attend<PRF>-PTC AGT-Joe THM-game-DEF RCO-watch<PRF> AGT-1-DEF THM-game-DEF)
"Joe attended the game and I watched it."
Conjunctions are formed among groups of words. Multiple verbs at the top level of a sentence form a group. Multiple verbs together in the same clause form a group. Nouns with the same semantic role in a clause form a group. Nouns with the same role in a subordinate clause form their own separate group. Descriptors attached to the same noun and having the same descriptive case form their own group. Each of these groups is assumed to have an "and" relation unless they are marked otherwise.
To make an "or" or "exclusive or" relationship within a group, you mark the members of the group with the SABI- modifier (or its siblings). Those modifiers are used to indicate the word's participation in the group. For instance, marking the members of the group with "sabin" indicates an inclusive "or" relation. Marking them with "sabif" indicates an "exclusive or" relation.
namadbuʃ panʃakmu sabif pakgatmu sabif
(RPT-run<PRF> AGT-clown-def SABI/7 AGT-lawyer-DEF SABI/7)
"Either the clown or the lawyer ran the race."labpaʃsat sugmalakam sabin subtasata sabin
(THM-person-IDF-NSP COM-glove-IDF-MTP SABI/5 COM-scarf-IDF SABI/5)
"any person wearing gloves or a scarf"
The SABI- modifier allows each member of the group to be marked differently, allowing you to construct elaborate inclusion groups, if you need to ("one or both of these two, but not if this other one").
If you need to create more than one conjoined group and their separateness would not be clear from the structure of the sentence, use the SABA- and SABU- modifiers. They work the same as SABI-, they simply show their members belong to a separate group.
Negation
The "sabiʃ" modifier indicates that a word is excluded from a group, like "Joe, but not Fred". If there is only one word in the group and it is modified with "sabiʃ", it simply means not, as in "I did not run."
Comparatives
Comparatives use the same groupings as conjunctions, only one or more members of the group is marked with a comparative (ʃUPI-, ʃUPA-, or ʃUPU-) modifier, instead of a conjunctional (SABI-) modifier. It is grammatically incorrect for a word to have both comparative and conjunctional modifiers. The marked word (verb, noun, or descriptor) is being compared to all the others in its group that are not marked with a comparative modifier. If more than one word in a group has a comparative modifier, they are all being compared to the group members that don't, not to each other. The remaining members of the group still form a conjunction group (with "and" begin the default relation). If there is nothing else in the group, the comparison is assumed to be "than before".
namadbaʃ pagaf pabfukgu ʃupis
(RPT-run<PFV> PAGA/7 AGT-coach<NVL>-DEF ʃUPI/8)
"The coach runs faster than she used to."namadbaʃ pagaf pabfukgu ʃupis pakgatmu
(RPT-run<PFV> PAGA/7 AGT-coach<NVL>-DEF ʃUPI/8 AGT-lawyer-DEF)
"The coach runs faster than the lawyer."namadbaʃ pagaf pabfukgu ʃupis panʃakmu pakgatmu
(RPT-run<PFV> PAGA/7 AGT-coach<NVL>-DEF ʃUPI/8 AGT-clown-DEF AGT-lawyer-DEF)
"The coach runs faster than the clown and the lawyer."namadbaʃ pagaf pabfukgu ʃupis panʃakmu ʃupit pakgatmu
(RPT-run<PFV> PAGA/7 AGT-coach<NVL>-DEF ʃUPI/8 AGT-clown-DEF ʃUPI/2 AGT-lawyer-DEF)
"The coach runs faster than the lawyer, and the clown is slower."namadbaʃ pagaf pabfukgu ʃupis pabdagka
(RPT-run<PFV> PAGA/7 AGT-coach<NVL>-DEF ʃUPI/8 AGT-question-IDF)
"Who does the coach run faster than?"pagoplap naflaspu pagdamku ʃupin pagdampu
(OBS-earn<PRG> PAT-money-IDF AGT-3-DEF ʃUPI/5 AGT-1-DEF)
"She earns as much money as I do."saʃolʃap ʃupit naʃolʃap ginut paChicago
(ITU-crowd<PRG> ʃUPI/2 RPT-be.crowded<PRG> GINU/2 AGT-Chicago)
"I think Chicago is less crowded than it used to be"
You can, of course, use an adverbial clause in your comparison.
tanampak pagdampum mapbaʃsam ʃupis map mukaʃkam
(RCO-invite<PFV> AGT-1-DEF-MTP EXP-person-IDF-MTP ʃUPI/8 EXP-AVC OPT-come<PFV>)
"We invited more people than we wanted to come."
You can form a comparative clause with no verb to simply contrast two things with each other.
laʃpatdu ʃupis togdamapu laʃpatdu togdamatu
(THM-car-DEF ʃUPI/8 PPR-1-DEF THM-car-DEF PPR-2-DEF)
"My car is better than yours"
The ʃUPI- modifier is a straightfoward comparison and is the basic comparative. The ʃUPU- modifier indicates how the two used to compare. And the ʃUPA- indicates how the two compare to an external standard. These can be used together in any combination to be specific about the comparison. If the quality being compared is not being stated elsewhere in the sentence or its surrounding context, A ʃUTI- modifier can be added to indicate the general quality (amount, duration, style) being compared.
namadbaʃ pagaf pabfukgu ʃupis ʃupun panʃakmu
(RPT-run<PFV> PAGA/7 AGT-coach<NVL>-DEF ʃUPI/8 ʃUPU/5 AGT-clown-DEF)
"The coach runs faster than the clown, though they used to be the same."namadbaʃ pagaf pabfukgu ʃupan ʃupis panʃakmu
(RPT-run<PFV> PAGA/7 AGT-coach<NVL>-DEF ʃUPA/5 ʃUPI/8 AGT-clown-DEF)
"The coach runs fast enough, but the the clown is slower."
Copulas
Copulas involving a predicate adjective can usually simply use the verbal form of the word.
padoʃnak tamʃamdu
(OBS-be.bumpy<PRG> STM-road-DEF)
"The road is bumpy."
Classifying statements can be formed by adding the thing being classified as a classificative (CLS) descriptor to the class as a noun. Use there verb "exist" to show that such a classification exists.
makudsik lafgapli folnapagi
(AUT-exist<PRM> THM-animal-ATR CLS-dog-ATR)
"A dog is an animal. (dog-like animals exist.)"pakodsak lafʃadʃu nogdamapu foAlice foBob
(OBS-exist<PRG> THM-friend-DEF ITD-1-DEF CLS-Alice CLS-Bob)
"Alice and Bob are my friends. (There exist Alice and Bob type friends of mine)"
Posessive and locative statements can be formed similarly to classifying ones, with a descriptor attached to a noun, and the verb "exist".
takodsak lanbaʃnu tonlunagu
(RCO-exist<PRG> THM-shrub-DEF PPR-garden<NVL>-DEF)
"The shrub is the gardener's."takodsak laʃpatdu mudbasafu
(RCO-exist<PRG> THM-car-DEF LOC-bridge-DEF)
"The car is on the bridge."pukodsak lanʃakmu mubdagaku
(INT-exist<PRG> THM-clown-DEF LOC-question-DEF)
"Where is the clown?"
Some statements that look like copulas in English are actuall just using the progressive aspect.
pamodbaʃ pagfadku
(OBS-run<PRG> AGT-athlete-DEF)
"The athlete is running."
Some copulas simply state that a thing exists.
takodsak lanbaʃma
(RCO-exist<PRG> THM-tree-IDF)
"There is a tree."
Copulas used to compare two things are covered in the comparatives section, above.
If none of these other cases apply, you can link two predicate nominals with the copular root gnkf as the verb. The things being linked need to have different semantic roles to distinguish them from a conjunction. The thing being compared is usually the experiencer (EXP), although agent (AGT) and patient (PAT) can be appropriate, depending on the connection being made. The thing being compared to is usually the theme (THM).
pagonkaf madnaldu kogdamapu lakgatma
(OBS-copula<PRG> EXP-parent-DEF ITI-1-DEF THM-lawyer-IDF)
"My mother is a lawyer."
Translations
bup fumʃamdu sutup tumbipatas fopbaʃasi fubit
TEM-AVC PER-road-DEF SUTU/1 CPO-act<OCC>-IDF-MAX CLS-human-ATR FUBI/2
when, along the metaphorical road consisting of human actions
when, in the course of human events
gudiptab papbaʃsim nasdintum pulpafaka
NEC-undo<ICP> AGT-person-ATR-MTP PAT-connect<OCC>-DEF-MTP CHA-politics-IDF
a peoplehood begins needing to undo political connections
it becomes necessary for one people to disolve the political bands
pat lasodnat napbaʃsim pusfatapa,
AGT-REL CNV-connect&tl;PRG> PAT-pereson-ATR-MTP CHA-difference-IDF,
that connect to other peoplehoods
which have connected them with another
gufisnafi nagdamkum supin nadpagsam puʃpanaga midlasdum koltaʃalu moskafatu,
NEC-place<ICP>-RCP PAT-3-DEF-MTP ʃUPI/5 PAT-nation-IDF-MTP CHA-difference-IDF CNF-law-DEF-MTP ITI-nature-DEF ORI-god-DEF,
and position themselves equal to other nations in accordance with the laws of nature and god
and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them
dusatdas pagdamkum labdalfum bat gulankat pagdamkum, sifpansum ʃopbaʃsas
( EXH-declare<PFV> AGT-3-DEF-MTP THM-cause-DEF-MTP CSE-REL NEC-separate<PFV> AGT-3-DEF-MTP, DFR-opinion-DEF-MTP ITP-person-IDF-MAX
they should declare the causes that require them to separate, in deference to the opinions of all people
a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation